Ap Nsl Essay

What are the difficulties in using the â€Å"wall of separation† principle? 5. List and explain the circumstances when the Supreme Court has ruled that freedom of speech may be limited. 6. Define the â€Å"clear-and-present-danger test,† libel, preferred position, prior restraint, imminent danger, and symbolic speech. You may just want to put these straight onto your flashcards 7. Summarize the Supreme Court’s changing interpretations of how to protect both the due process rights of accused criminals and to preserve the safety of the community. Define the exclusionary rule and the â€Å"good faith exception. †. Chapter 19 Reading Outline 1. What does the book say is the pertinent question regarding civil rights? 2. What were the strategies that black leaders followed in order to obtain civil rights? Once basic rights such as voting and integration had been obtained, what issues did civil rights leaders focus on? 3. Briefly outline the steps in the NAACP’s strategy in the fight against segregated schools and indicate the success they had in the courts and in implementing desegregation. . What was the issue concerning desegregation vs. integration? How has this issue been resolved? 5. What were the four developments that made it possible to pass civil rights bills? 6. What accounts for the change in attitude in Congress towards civil rights issues from the 1960s to the present?   How has the Supreme Court changed in its attitudes towards equal rights for women from the early 20th century to today? 8. What are the two standards the Court uses today to in considering sex discrimination cases? What is the debate between those who support â€Å"equality of result† and those who support â€Å"equality of opportunity†? 9. What are the criteria that the Supreme Court has adapted in defining strict scrutiny of any law involving racial preferences? 10. Briefly summarize the highlights of the government’s response to abortion. How did activists for the disabled manage to get The Americans with Disabilities Act passed? 12. Briefly summarize what is included in the law and the objections that some have had to the law.

Impact of War, Conflict & Terrorism on the UPS Essay

If there is a war and NATO decides that the UK needs to provide direct military action then the British Army will have to be prepared. War affects the army as an organisation because it means they will lose soldiers and have to retrain new ones. An example of this would be the crash of Nimrod XV230 which killed everyone on board, that highlighted the cost-pressure of the war. The training and recruiting of troops is expensive enough but to constantly sustain the high amount of soldiers that is required in a war such as Afghanistan it comes with great financial struggles, some soldiers have even had to do multiple tours in Afghanistan. Financial cuts are just getting more severe as well, in 2010 there were 102,000 trained personnel ready to support the UK but by the year 2020 there is only going to be 82,000. With this come more struggle and a more intense battle for any soldier fighting in a war in the future. Providing soldiers for a war also puts strain on welfare officers as they are the ones who have to deal with helping the wounded, grieving families and children who have lost fathers. Because the UK have had to provide such a strong army for many years now and have lost so much funding it means that they can’t afford to keep on anyone who is badly injured and those who claim compensation will not receive anything near what they may have in the past, this will directly affect the economy as these injured soldiers may not be able to return to a civilian job and will claim benefits. The war in Afghanistan caused the army to be equipped with a lot of new high tech equipment in a really short space of time, this meant they had to operate and maintain this equipment which weighs down logistics and is very costly in the long run. It seems that the more war the UK Army has to deal with the more money it is costing them, and with that comes setbacks and redundancies. This could lead to a lack of morale from the service men and women as they are being asked to do more but for fewer advantages. Another key issue from personnel at war besides physical injuries would be the mental damage they suffer. Statistics from the MOD show that between April and June 2013 there was 1367 new cases of  personnel suffering with a mental disorder in the Armed Forces, putting them at the highest amount of mental disorder sufferers than any of the other services. That’s just within a three month period, and with Afghanistan tours running every six or ninth months it just seems that number will rapidly heighten. Overall it seems the main impact the British Army suffers from when it comes to War is the financial cut backs. They are expected to do so much and constantly provide strong soldiers yet they aren’t seeing much in return. CONFLICT Conflict undercuts or destroys environmental, physical, human and social capital, destroying all available opportunities for a sustainable development. So saying that makes it clear that it is going to directly affect the well-being of the British Army because it results in the loss of lives and in some cases human rights. It is said that the British Army has been involved in some form of conflict for around 100 years now, so you could almost say it’s just part of the job and something you have to deal with. But similar to war, conflict has its effects, mentally and physically. There is a thin line between what makes a war and what makes a conflict therefore the effects are very similar, just the effects of a war would be on a much larger scale. Constant conflict is a burden for the UK army as it takes time away from training and puts pressure on troops to be sent out on a mission before they are ready. In some cases soldiers only have 6 months training before they are deployed somewhere, whereas others take part in training for a much longer period in time before sent anywhere. Conflict will also increase the stress levels within the British army which can lead to more serious problems such as extreme physical and emotional exhaustion. There is also the obvious factor that conflict can lead to war if it gets out of hand, which then would lead back to all the affects war has on the Army. Overall it seems that conflict affects the British Army in the exact same ways that a War does however just not on such a grand scale. TERRORISM Terrorism directly affects the British Army as they have to actively engage in counter-terrorism operations across the world. The main reason the British Army sends troops out to Afghanistan is to get rid of the Taliban regime and Al Qaeda, a well-known terrorist organisation. The British Army  enforces anti-terrorism alongside providing humanitarian aid. Not only does the British Army have to get rid of Al Qaeda but they also have to make sure they cannot return, this is a tough and time consuming task that has seen the death of many service personnel. Reference: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/15212871 https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/285196/30_june_2013.pdf http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-2/content/203.htm http://www.army.mod.uk/operations-deployments/operations-deployments.aspx http://www.army.mod.uk/documents/general/Your_Guide_to_the_Intelligence_Corps.pdf

Love at First Sight Essay

Some say that true love is based on physical appearance without a deeper understanding of a person does not exist. Others argue that one may be able to see true love immediately. Shakespeare puts a part of the play to this question. He makes reference to Romeo and Juliet as â€Å"crossed lovers†. In other words, the two lovers are manipulated by their future from the very beginning. Although not meant to be together, they may still love each other. Romeo first sees Juliet during her parents’ banquet. Romeo is completely in love with looks and not personality. His first love, Rosaline, does not return the favor of his love. Romeo becomes entirely depressed and love sick. He still insists that Rosaline is his one true love, even though she does not love him back. Romeo is very stubborn. Romeo is struck by Cupid’s arrow, when by chance, he meets Juliet. Instantly, Romeo and Juliet are attracted to each other, by Romeo’s words, and by Juliet’s looks. When Romeo first sees Juliet, he is completely astounded by her beauty. Without even knowing her name, Romeo’s eyes take complete control of his heart and mind, setting him in a helpless state of love. He questions whether he has loved before, and realizes that his previous loves have never been genuine. Romeo and Juliet did not take the time to get to know each other and form a deep intimate relationship. They rushed into their relationship. They were also very young to be experiencing love. Even people much older than them do not know what love means. It may have really been true love that was mutually felt by both of them though. Many people say that they have had experiences with true love but I do not think that true love exists in the real world, only in fairy tales and fiction stories. I do not think that you can fall in love until you are mature enough to understand what love really is. Many people fall in love to fast and end up being disappointed because of the way their future turns out. My opinion is, if you are going to spend your life with one person, make sure that the person is the only one you love.

Marbury v. Madison Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Marbury v. Madison - Essay Example The President issued the slots and the senate approved them (Smith, 1996, p.524). Some appointments, however, were termed void. The legislation was later amended, and Jefferson later eliminated some commissions, including Marbury, and re-assigned some slots to the Democratic-Republican members. Marbury filed a petition in the Supreme Court for the writ of mandamus. This led to the issues as to whether Marbury had a right to the commission, whether the law awards him a remedy, whether the Supreme Court had the original jurisdiction to issue writs of mandamus, whether the Supreme Court had the mandate to review acts of Congress and thereby determine whether they were unconstitutional and whether the Congress could increase the Supreme Court’s mandate as provided for under Article III of the Constitution. The court held that Marbury bore a right to the commission and had a remedy. It was further provided that the Supreme Court bore the mandate to review and determine whether acts of Congress were unconstitutional, that Congress had no mandate to expand the Supreme Courts original jurisdiction beyond what is provided for under the Constitution’s Article III and that the Supreme Court lacks the original jurisdiction to issue writs of mandamus. This decision resulted in instituting of the model of Judicial Review, which is the judiciary’s ability to assert a law as unconstitutional. The case facilitated the principle of checks and balances within the government. It was, therefore, a win for the Democrat-Republicans as Marbury failed to attain the position of Justice of the

Organisational Change Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Organisational Change - Case Study Example Since its inception in 2003, the company found itself as relatively young in the industry. However it emerged as a market leader in the industry going over 225 destinations with 6 cruises. The company has taken the necessary strategies to ensure that it responds to the external changes in the industry. It is one of the leading players currently in the cruise industry and has been able to create a competitive edge in the industry which many operators have not been able to create although they have been in the industry for along time now. The company is serving more than 2050 passengers going for journeys of more than 100 nights in the sea. The company has already expressed its interest in Asia and European markets.Like other companies P & O Cruise was challenged by the changes that were taking place in the external environment. Let us look at some of the changes that led to implementation of the current changes in the operation of the company that affected the tourism industry. One of the security threats that have affected the industry has been the issue of terrorism. The attacks by IRL in Britain’s transport industry have been one of the threats that the industry has been facing. Many people have feared that the attacks would be diverted from railway travelling system to the cruise industry. But the September 11 attack in the US affected the industry in a way that all people feared travelling. The subsequent attack of the British Railway system on July 7th was like a final blow to the industry. There were record low booking in the cruise industry. Social changes The cruise industry has been led by the social changes taking place in the market. Changes in customer's preference have been instrument in instating social changes that have affected the operations of the cruise industry. Since 1997, it has been observed that there has been more preference to group and family travelling in the cruise industry. Technological changes Cruise industry has been forced to respond to technological changes that directly or indirectly affects the industry. Since 1997, technology has reduced face to face business transaction especially in making the bookings. Many people also take their holidays and at the same time continue with their business. Environmental changes There have been changes in the marine pollution laws that have made the industry to put in place new strategies in order to manage these changes and operate within the new marine pollution laws. Several laws have been put in place by International Maritime Organization which has affected the industry. Political and government policies New legislation concerning the maintenance of ports and the subsequent new changers that have been put in place has been a challenge to the industry. Acts like Crimes at Sea Act 2000 and others like Admiralty Act has continued to be a challenge for the industry. (Jolene 2000, p. 4)) Political stability has been a big challenge for the

Design development report Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Design development report - Assignment Example It guides design goals in order to meet the least significant detail or challenge up to the most important requirement for a more holistic result. Choices are guided by these principles for costs, economics, functionality, ergonomics, re-design methods or changes to meet goals such as elegant, modern, or stylish looks (Holm, 2006). Design approaches include user-centred which focuses on the requirement and limitations of the user, use-centred which is guided by the function of the artefact, the TIMTOWDI approach or â€Å"there is more than one way to do it† approach that follows multiple approaches, and keep it simple or KISS approach that minimises process and content without sacrificing aesthetics (Holm, 2006). Methods used in the design process may apply the following: Exploration of possibilities that encompass definition of problem and research. This may be used for existing facilities, products or services or even for creating new ones. This process also includes brainst orming where all stakeholders involved contribute to the goals and outcomes. Redefinition is the development and improvement of traditional specifications and guidelines to arrive at better options, solutions, and goals applicable n many fields of design. Management is the process of a continues approach to defining, exploring and creating new designs Prototyping is the production of possible products that improves traditional or existing designs Trend-spotting is the approach towards development of emerging or new products in order to achieve innovation (Getlein, 2008). Design in business has occupied a major role from a previously minor one. There was a time when industrialists hire designers to develop appearances of products or incorporate aesthetics on functional and already existing products. Today, even enterprises need to be designed in such a way as achieve a desired structure and external, visible properties as influenced by the environment and relationships (Giachetti, 20 10) Translation of the design brief into an outcome The design development process adopts fitting systems that meet the goals of the stakeholders. The design development involves defined scope of activities, understands the user and user needs, adopts ways to meet user needs, evaluates the solution, and finally implement the design. In a more streamlined approach, it involves: Identification of need Brief-building Concept generation Concept development Concept presentation Prototyping and testing Manufacturing (Presentation). Under the concept generation and development, solution centred approach is adopted where various factors meet on the centre. These include the various aspects of the design with consideration to target audience or market, final outcome of the materials, moral responsibility, the design, legislation, and raw materials. Each of these aspects encompass a wider concept that contributes to the whole: the audience are influenced to become aware of the brand and value of the product; the outcome needs to address functionality, safety, durability and longevity; under the moral responsibility is the firm’s commitment to its workers and the community of users;

Organizational Behavior Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Organizational Behavior - Research Paper Example It describes that the individuals and groups of employees do offer any influence over the organizational working environment. It is entirely concerned with the varied rising realities in an organization (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2009). Moreover, OB is also described as a human technique, which is utilized to analyze individual employee behaviors in a specific organization. It entirely concentrates on the understanding, forecasting and controlling human behaviors in an organization. OB is the key facet which is utilized to maintain and to enhance the level of relationship among the employees of an organization. It helps in proper sharing of diverse facts and information with one another resulting in enhancement of their technical knowledge and skills. It also enhances the devotion and commitment of the employees leading to augmentation of productivity and profitability of the organization. Hence, it helps in improvement of efficiency and effectiveness of both the employee and the organizat ion (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2009). OB is also utilized as an analytical tool to judge the psychological skills and attitudes of the employees. It also focuses on improving the productivity, declining absenteeism, enhancing returns, improving job satisfaction and devotion. Thus, in order to enhance these attributes, OB utilizes systematic and organized study of the employee behavior. Hence, it can be avowed that as OB is used to predict employee psychology so it is also known as organizational psychology (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2009). Discussion Due to globalization and industrialization, the importance of OB is becoming more imperative in every organization. This is because OB is required in order to cope up with the changing nature and attitude of the employees of the organizations. OB can also be regarded as an educational discipline which is concerned with describing, accepting, forecasting, and scheming individual behavior in an organizational environment. It is done in order to augme nt organizational efficiency along with corporate image. Moreover, improvement in organizational returns might also enhance brand identity and uniqueness. According to Kreitner and Kinicki (2009), OB is that branch of study which helps in prediction of the employee attitude in an organization. For this reason, it is also described as a human technique utilized for individual benefit. In addition, OB also helps in improving inter-personal relationships amid the workers and the management in an organization. Hence, it facilitates the management to comprehend the psychology of the individual employees which helps in reducing employee discontentment and disapproval. This may result in enhancement of employee commitment leading to organizational improvement (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2009). Furthermore, as organizations are operated with individuals so effective utilization of the employees can only lead to success of a business enterprise. Thus, proper utilization of the workers can be possib le only if the managers inspire and stimulate them towards higher output and better outcomes. For this cause, OB is also described as the technique of application of managerial skills in order to investigate the performance of the workers in a group within an organization (Brooks, 2006). OB is also specified as a technique and a practical behavioral science which helps to understand

Assessment for Managerial Accounting Term Paper

Assessment for Managerial Accounting - Term Paper Example Due to this particular fact, the prices of the material as a percentage of sales have decreased. Keeping the reorganization into consideration, the sales revenue will increase due to the increase in the production. In the first phase of the cycle, all the committed costs are incurred. Committed or locked in costs are those cost that have not been incurred currently, but they will be incurred in the future based on the decisions that have already been taken in relation to the product. The examples of cost incurred in the first phase of the product life cycle designing are cost product’s material and labor input and the production process. These costs are very difficult to alter once they have been committed to. In the second phase of the product life cycle costing, cost incurred is included. Costs are incurred when a resource is used or sacrificed. In the second phase of the cycle, only such costs are recorded that have been incurred. An analysis of the life cycle costing system would present the fact that 80% of the cost of any product is committed into in the first phase of the cycle, whereas the second phase of the cycle present such cost which have been incurred. Majority of these costs are the same which were already committed in the first phase of the project. In the life cycle costing cost can be effectively managed in the first phase of the cycle in which the planning of the product design and planning takes place. In the third phase of the product life cycle, the post sales service cost are estimated such as warranty costs, installation charges and the cost for discontinuing the operations at the end of the economic life cycle of the product. In the traditional product costing system, the management accounting systems are focused primarily on the manufacturing stage of a product’s life cycle. The cost which have been incurred before manufacturing, such as the research and

Brazilian Offshoring Sector Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Brazilian Offshoring Sector - Essay Example According to the Milken Institute’s latest Capital Access Index, Brazil has improved capital access for its entrepreneurs with the intent to stimulate the nation’s economic growth (LBC para. 1). In addition, the Brazilian offshoring sector is characterized by better access to human capital. The case study clearly indicates that the country’s ICT-related technical and graduate courses generate nearly 100,000 graduates annually. According to official data, Brazilian universities produced over 220,000 graduates in 2008. Access to R&D and Technology The Brazilian government gives special concessions to the country’s R&D and technology sectors. To illustrate, the government provides companies with 50% excise tax reduction to purchase R&D equipment and 100% reduction to import software development materials. Brazil’s R&D expenditure in the 1997–2002 period was greater than that of India. The Brazilian Federal Government gives particular attention t o technology and considers software and IT services industry as strategic. In addition, the Brazilian Development Bank offers extensive credit facilities to foster technology projects. Capabilities Brazil has a fast growing economy capable of making the country an attractive destination for global investors. Information technology has been well developed in Brazil and it represents approximately 7% of the country’s GDP. ... nline business sector, Brazil is the largest market in Latin America and the country’s online market grew by 20% over the last year to 40.5 million users (European Travel Commission para. 11). The case study reflects that the country’s total ICT market reached $139.1 billion in 2008. The Brazilian market is export oriented and pays specific attention to global brand performances. The government places great emphasis on the country’s domestic market so as to ensure the sustainability of its traditional industrialists. Regulatory Framework While analyzing the country’s regulatory framework, it seems that Brazil adopts a friendly approach to foreign companies. The case study notes that Brazil has the highest Regulatory Quality index as compared to other emerging economies such as India and China. This situation provides outsourcing firms with a favorable business environment in the country. In addition, the country’s lowest FDI Restrictive Index Scores claim that it is one of the most open economies for FDI. Culture While considering Brazilian culture, it is observed that many Brazilian companies face challenges in handling the country’s English proficiency. This situation persuades Western companies to refrain from outsourcing jobs and businesses to Brazil. From the case study, it is clear that the Brazilian culture attaches great importance to teamwork in software development projects. In addition, Brazilian culture is closer to that of the West in terms of race, religion, and family lifestyle. Hence, Brazilians can better understand Western business rules and market environments (Case Study 8). 2. Unlike the case of India, Brazil developed its software sector mainly to meet the needs of its domestic firms. Evidence suggests that Brazilian IT companies have

Daily Life In Northeast Arkansas During The Civil War Research Paper

Daily Life In Northeast Arkansas During The Civil War - Research Paper Example Therefore, following the secession, the Arkansas people located in the north began to fight for Arkansas State with Arkansas people located in the South. The economic activity of Arkansas State was agriculture because geographical characteristics which made it easy to engage in subsistence farming on small parcels of land and cash-crop farming on large plantations . Cotton was the main cash crop and due to its price increase, the State of Arkansas spurred and prospered in the 1850’s. However, some regions that had many slaves such as southern and eastern regions benefited more from the economic spurs brought about by cotton than those in regions with few slaves. Consequently, this created and increased the social, economic and political dissonance between Arkansas people living in the highlands and those located in the lowlands. Political dominance of the Democratic Party was the more rooted to this dissonance with some political figures advocating for the rights of the southern Arkansas while majority of the Arkansas were against slavery and remained loyal to the union. In addition, a larger number of Arkansas supported the secession but only a few were totally against it. Therefore, despite intense pressure from secessionist element, including the state officials and representatives from the seceded stated, some delegates barred every attempt to validate a secession ordinance. The season of deciding whether to secede or not, characterized heated debate, fallouts and fights that led to destruction of property and people. In so far as, the war is concerned, it always brings with it a lot of suffering, sorrow and requires greats sacrifice. T he first year of the Northeast Arkansas civil war, 1861, was quiet since the dissonance was rather vague and occurred underground. In addition, war preparation and assembling of troops for inspection and provision of orders occupied the first year of the northeast Arkansas civil war. The Arkansas people went about their daily business as usual without any fear. During the first year, there was a lot of indifference since some people were in support of the war and looked forward to it with a lot of enthusiasm while others were totally against the war. The first union forces to invade the northeast Arkansas came from Missouri. However, in the second year, 1862, the situation dramatically changes as union naval forces broke through Confederate defences along the Mississippi River and captured the city of Memphis, while Federal forces started to inhabit the northeast region and eastern lowlands of the Arkansas State. The war had reached northeast Arkansas much faster than anyone had ant icipated. During the period of the war, Arkansas women and children were toiling in the proverbial trenches on the home front. As the Confederate and Federal armies were concentrating their forces east of the Mississippi River, war was just as real in Arkansas as it was in Tennessee and Virginia. Since, the civil war in northeast Arkansas had just began, the Arkansas people appeared to be less defensive. This defenceless situation made the Arkansas State weak and naive among its enemies2. The defenceless situation of the State of Arkansas was primarily because of lack of an army to protect its citizens. As such, the lack of a security system or body had greater impact on innocent women and children. Moreover, as the men set out for war, the women and children back at home faced many challenges such as lack of food and many other kind dangers. Food was the most crucial problem characterizing the years of war, as farmers could no longer continue with their farming resourcefully. As su ch, the defenceless nature of Arkansas

Role Of Gender In American Political History Essay

Role Of Gender In American Political History - Essay Example Though the differences among the author’s arguments are more, the similarities make a strong impact on the role of gender. The American political history dates back to the Second World War after which only the men were provided with the basic rights and liberties. The discrimination of men and women played a vital role in denying the rights of a woman. The women were deprived of their basic rights and this, in turn, paved the way for further discrimination. Each argument is explained in such a way that it clearly exhibits the real feelings of the author. The authors have depicted the incidents to show the severity of problems during the Revolution. Political problems were prevalent in most of the countries and gender problems were common. But the situation was completely different in America. As America was considered as a democratic country, the problems and issues were not magnified to a certain extent. But the situation did not last for a long time; instead, the problems be came more severe. Banner explained the arguments of Elizabeth Lady Stanton and insisted on her arguments. Stanton expressed her views on American ideologies and insisted that women must be a part of American government. Since the American government did not permit. Women’s suffrage was also considered to be an important part and people like Stanton and other activists established few organizations that helped women. Banner insisted that women’s issues must be resolved and they must be included in the process of selecting a government. As men were given more importance when compared to women, the voluntary organizations fought against the government to incorporate laws that would enable women to be a part of the government. The National Women’s Suffrage Association (NWSA) was one of the most prominent associations that insisted on women empowerment. Due to the establishment of such voluntary organizations, there was a substantial increase in the number for organizations which wor ked for the well being of women. Banner’s approach towards women empowerment and inclusion of women in the government received critical acclaims. Though many people opposed it in the beginning, the detailed description about the problems and the governmental issues was considered as an eye opener. Due to this reason, Banner was considered as one of the most prominent writers who insisted on women’s rights. The time period pre revolution and post revolution was in contrast to one another. The political opportunities widened during the early 20th century and this was the

Napoleons policies as First Consul Essay Example for Free

Napoleons policies as First Consul Essay In all that he did, his main aim was to secure himself in power. How far do you agree with this judgement on Napoleons policies as First Consul? After the Coup of Brumaire in 1799, Napoleon emerged as the new leader of France and devised a system of government that gave him effective control over all aspects of life in France. He controlled religion, education, law-making, policing, legal reforms and the economic situation by putting in place a series of policies, designed both to comply with some principles of the Revolution whilst also giving Napoleon control and security in power. This essay looks to investigate how far each of these policies suggest that Napoleons main aim was always to secure himself in power. Napoleons policy of police and propaganda is the most obviously repressive of all the policies. Many aspects of his heavy policing conform with dictatorial regimes, as does his policy of censorship and (often false or manipulated) propaganda. France became effectively a Police State, with Napoleon at the core. The Minister of Police, Joseph Fouchà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½, who controlled National Security, established a network of informers who monitored public opinion and reported on any suspicious political activity. They also monitored everyday life in France: the education system; prisons; food supplies; conscription and public works. All findings were written in a daily report, submitted directly to Napoleon. These jobs were carried out by prefects (effectively spies) who were appointed directly by Napoleon. By organising such a well-organised surveillance system, the regime encountered little opposition from the Jacobins, Royalists or Liberals. Due to the rigorous nature of the police, no uprising or rebellion was possible, thereby ensuring Napoleon was safe in power. Due to the dictatorial style of this policy, it is obvious Napoleon was trying to ensure security in power and establish himself as leader without immediate opposition or objection from minority groups and the general public by repressing anyone opposed to the regime. Under the Police State, arbitrary imprisonments and executions were frequent. As a result people were AFRAID to oppose the regime. Napoleon also recognised the importance of censorship in securing his position in power as this quote shows: If the press is not controlled, I shall not remain three days in power In January 1800, Napoleon reduced the number of newspaper in Paris from 73 to 13 and forbade the production of any new ones. On top of this, newspapers were forbidden to discuss controversial subjects and were kept short of reliable news. Editors were forced to rely on military bulletins or articles published in the Official Government Journal. An example of a manipulated story within the press is the report of the Battle of Marengo. Although this battle was unsuccessful, it was presented as a triumph and Napoleon told people it was a well-devised plan. Prefects also kept a check on papers to ensure that they only published what Napoleon wanted. Not only were the bad aspects of the regime censored, but also the good aspects were highlighted (or sometimes invented). This was intended to rouse moral and encourage support for the regime. Napoleons increased popularity through propaganda meant increased security in power. Napoleon did not only control the medium of text. Many theatres were forced to close, to avoid defamatory shows about the regime from being performed, and those that remained open were only allowed to show sanctioned plays. Napoleon also employed fashionable painters to depict him as a romantic hero (such as the famous picture of Napoleon crossing the Alps, by Jacques Louis David). In many of his portraits he is shown as having a positive impact on France, encouraging the public to believe this was true. Napoleon aimed to create loyal followers, or at least people who accepted and tolerated the regime. His harsh measures of policing prove a desperation to remain in power and secure a popular public opinion. If the public were not convinced to support Napoleon through the extensive propaganda, then any opposed were repressed by force. In Napoleons government policies and his self-induced role of First Consul under the Constitution of the Year VIII, it is clear he desired supreme control and power in France. The limited influence of the system of election on government figures meant virtually all aspects of the legislature were controlled or heavily influenced by Napoleon himself. Under the Constitution of the Year X, the system of election was abolished completely. This ensured Napoleon could not be removed from power. By organising the government in this way, he was obviously intentionally ensuring security in power. However, not all of Napoleons government policies can be directly related to this aim. Although the overall nature of the legislature was very similar to the Ancià ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½n Regime (i.e. Napoleon had effective control of the entire government), some aspects were in keeping with revolutionary ideas that had no (obvious) effect on Napoleons security in power. For example, although Napoleon devised and instigated all new laws, they were in keeping with revolutionary ideas. Napoleon ensured a mixture of old and new laws under the Civil Code. This Napoleonic concept, somewhat in contrast with his policy of a police state, ensured equality in courts and also fairer trials and hearings. This cannot directly be interpreted as an intentionally devised plan to ensure Napoleons security in power. However, it is possible that by creating a legal system conforming to some revolutionary ideals, Napoleon hoped to gain the publics loyalty and support, thereby increasing his popularity, therefore s ecuring himself in power. Napoleon also developed a new religious policy. The Concordat signed by Pope Pius VII and Napoleon in 1801, saw the restoration of the Catholic Church in France and the revolutionary idea of the state payment of the church. Napoleon was raised a Catholic and was keen to encourage religion within France, as this quote shows: No society can exist without equality of fortunes; and equality of fortunes can not exist without religion. However, the Concordat was manipulated to Napoleons obvious advantage as well. In signing the Concordat, the Pope agreed to endorse the Revolution and regime, state control of the churches and church appointments and accept the loss of church lands during the Revolution. Also, in 1802, Napoleon attached the Organic Articles, without papal agreement, to the Concordat. These guaranteed the revolutionary principle of religious toleration and made the Protestant and Jewish churches similarly subject to state authority. It can be argued that one of Napoleons aims in forming the Concordat was to ensure a lack of interference from the church, meaning his position in France could not be affected by the Pope or any other religious order. However, whether or not this was his main motive in signing the Concordat is less certain. Although the church was a powerful tool in controlling and influencing the public and was often used as a vehicle of propaganda, Napoleons desire to influence and manipulate the public cannot justify other aspects of the Concordat such as the state responsibility for the payment of the clergy. On reflection, it appears that whilst in some aspects of his religious policy Napoleon may have been genuinely trying to improve life in France, it is clear that in other areas of the policy, such as his healing of rifts between the Church and the notables after the seizing of church lands in 1789, were designed to appease certain groups of people, such as the Bourgeoisie, therefore securing himself in power. He also aimed to disassociate the Catholic Church with the principle of counter-revolution and the restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy therefore avoiding a potential Jacobin uprising, which could be detrimental to his position in power. His further use of the church as a propaganda tool also justifies this theory, as in this way, the public were encouraged to see Napoleon as a positive figure. His desire to win the publics support of the regime and therefore of him, was rooted in his wish to remain in power, as is displayed in this policy. Napoleon also established a new economic policy designed to tap the wealth of the country more effectively than during the Ancià ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½n Regime or the Revolution. His principle of taxation went against revolutionary ideas, with industrial and commercial profits being taxed only lightly. This may be seen as a further example of Napoleon attempting to appease and win support of the Bourgeoisie, thereby ensuring popularity and securing his position in power. Other aspects of this policy included the introduction of new discount banks designed to help the state pay off its national debt and pay its obligations to domestic creditors. This policy increased the efficiency of revenue and led to the balancing of the budget by 1802. Citizens would have been pleased with Frances new economic stability, potentially leading to increased support for Napoleon and the regime. However, whether Napoleon put in place this policy for this reason of for the stabilisation and well-being pf Frances economy cannot be proven. Napoleons educational policy is perhaps his most revolutionary policy due to his introduction of secondary schools into France. He formed 39 lycà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½es in 1802, which were run by the state. Public education should be the first object of government. Everything depends upon it, the past, the present and the future. Above all we must secure unity: we must be able to cast a whole generation in the same mould. However, despite Napoleon saying that education should be based on ability, not birth, very few common people attended secondary school. They were taught up to the age of twelve by small, church-run schools. It was believed by Napoleon, that they needed no more than a simple moral education. No form of education was available to girls at any age or from any background. It was mostly the sons of notables who attended secondary school. In total there were 6,400 state scholarships available. One third of these (approximately 2,400) were chosen by the government from among the sons of soldiers of officials. The remaining 4,000 were supposedly chosen from the best pupils at leading primary schools. However, well-off families were favoured and only a very small percentage of common people attended secondary school. Many bourgeois parents preferred to send their children to privately run Church schools, favouring the increased freedom of thought and wider curriculum. However, Napoleon did not approve and tried to close them by placing high taxes on them. The education itself was ultitarian and based around a Spartan regime with a strong military ethos. At first only Latin and Mathematics were taught but as time went on, other subjects (deemed acceptable by the government) were introduced such as French, History, Science and Geography. Freethinking was discouraged and teaching methods followed a policy of indoctrination. Napoleon wanted education to encourage obedience to the regime and create loyal subjects from an early age. There is little in this policy that suggests Napoleon wishing to initially secure himself in power. However, as this new education system was largely beneficial to France, citizens may, unwittingly, increase their support of Napoleon and the regime. Whether, this was deliberately intended by Napoleon cannot be proven. On balance, I believe that all of Napoleons devised policies had a basis in ensuring his security in power, some more so than others. His police and propaganda policy is obviously based on initially securing himself in power without hindrances from rebellions or uprisings. Also, his religious policy was designed not only to appease the Pope and guarantee a lack of interference, but also to avoid a potential Jacobin uprising through an association between the Catholic Church and the Bourbon Monarchy. Others, such as his educational policy, are subtler, encouraging support for the regime through improved life within France. In all areas, he is seen as either directly influencing the public, either by force or by propaganda, or indirectly influencing the public by creating better conditions in France, therefore encouraging support of the regime. I believe that it was Napoleons main aim to secure himself in power. After all, if he fell out of favour quickly, all of his other aims, such as creating a better France, would fall with him. It was implicit that he secured himself in power as soon as possible, in order that he might put all his other aims into action. Ultimately, most of his actions aimed either to limit or prevent the impact any opposes to the regime may have on Napoleons security in power or to create a better France thereby increasing popularity of the regime. However that is not to say that other policies did not centre around a different aim, such as the economic policy, which aimed to create financial stability in France primarily, and possibly may have contributed to increased support and popularity of Napoleon and his regime.

Capital Market Union: Do We Need One?

Capital Market Union: Do We Need One? Introduction Capital market integration is not a new topic in the EU. It became however pressing again after the international financial crisis, that exposed the limits of European firms overreliance on banks. The Juncker Commission made CMU one of its flagships initiatives, aiming at reducing national fragmentation and barriers in order to create a better environment for firms financing. While such a decision can be easily understood from a single-market perspective of analysis, the proposed and implemented reforms in order to establish such a unified market do not tackle deep structural differences at the national level, while also avoiding the strengthening of a central supervisor, undermining the efforts of harmonisation. What is CMU? The idea of a European Capital Market Union (thereafter CMU) was presented on 15 July 2014 by the soon to be President of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker addressing the European Parliament[1], subsequently inserted in the Commissions priorities through the establishment of a new Directorate-General for Financial Stability, Financial Services and Capital Market Union[2]. As repeatedly stressed by Juncker, the top priority of his presidency is to strengthen Europes economy and stimulate investment to create jobs, favouring a deepening of capital market integration and a reduction of the current fragmentation between national borders. In the words of former Commissioner Hill, the CMU is about linking savings to growth in Europe, Capital market union is not a novelty in the integration debate: the free flow of capital is indeed one of the fundamental principles (the so-called four freedoms) on which European integration is based since the treaty of Rome (art. 63 TFUE). In the 1980s a first wave of integration dealt with harmonisation of public offering and listing particulars. In 1993 the Investment Service Directive (ISD)[3] was agreed. In the wake of the EMU a new wave of harmonising measures was proposed under the aegis of the Financial Services Action Plan (FSAP), with the ambition to increase growth and reduce funding costs. The centrepiece was the 2004 Markets in Financial Instruments Directive (MiFID)[4], but it also contained measures regulating disclosure and market manipulation. Notwithstanding years of harmonising regulation and a common currency for most EU member states, capital market is still fragmented, integration often rests on a vertical base, few EU-wide structures have emerged in the last decade and the most powerful intermediaries are often of US parentage. Europe has struggled for decades to create a decent capital market, heavily relying on bank financing, and the financial crisis has retrenched and re-fragmented the landscape. A capital market channels money provided by investors and banks to borrowers through a variety of instruments, called securities. A central problem in the development of such a market is the information asymmetry between issuers and investors. As noted in Black (2000), both governmental bodies and self-regulatory organizations and reputational intermediaries play a role in guaranteeing the enforcement of transparency of information and correct price formation. Formal rules are only the beginning: the real challenge is the direct and indirect enforcement of new legislation. Rationale for CMU The proposal for CMU can be analysed through different lenses, justifying its rationale.First and foremost, the allocation of resources in the actual structure of the EU is over-relying on bank loans. While retail banks have a better knowledge of local situation, often providing more information to investors and borrowers, bank funding is not always the most efficient way for dynamic and highly growing enterprise to fund themselves. Moreover, due to the increased capital requirement for banks after the financial crisis and the difficulties encountered by some banks regarding their balance-sheets and the bias over sovereign bonds of their home country, financing opportunities have decreased. National fragmentation and the bias for national portfolios reduce the opportunities for cross-border funding, complicating the way investors and borrowers can meet their needs. Finally especially valuable for the Eurozone enhanced financial integration act as a private risk-sharing mechanism, spreading the risk inherent in investment on a cross-national field, thus reducing the risk of asymmetric shocks in the area and fostering the resilience of the block. This consideration is even more important considering the lack of political will to establish a public shock absorption mechanism as for instance proposed in the Five President Report (Juncker, Tusk, Dijsselbloem, Draghi, Schulz, 2015). Moreover, numerous forms of financing and better allocation of resources within the Eurozone foster the transmission channel of monetary policy, enhancing the ability of the ECB to meet its targets (ECB 2012). European and US capital markets The natural benchmark for capital markets is the US. Comparisons can be made at the EU level, but once we consider the country specificity we have an even more complex landscape. In fact big differences remain between national markets, mostly of a structural nature. When the CMU action plan was presented, although US and EU economies have roughly the same size, US venture capital market is five times EUs one and US equity markets are twice the EU ones in term of capitalization. Europe has a universal banking landscape with large banks covering commercial and investment activities. While in the US 80% of corporate debt financing depends on capital markets, in the EU 90% depends on bank financing[5]. Such dependence made the European economy vulnerable when banking conditions tightened in a number of member States during and following the international financial crisis. Moreover, the financial crisis had a considerable negative impact on securitization issuance in Europe, dropping from 594 billion euro at the end of 2007 to 216 billion in 2014 (on the rise since 2011). Finally, international capital requirement and EU banking regulation changes during the crisis impacted bank lending. Variation within Europe Other than having a different system to the one of the US on aggregate, within the EU there is also great variation on the depth and development of capital markets nationally.   Ã‚   Only 9 Member states have non-banking financial intermediation above 50% of GDP. Divergence can be seen also in the stock market capitalization of different member states as a percentage of GDP. Moreover, also the access to firms and individuals differ considerably among member states. Non-financial company reliance on equity issuance exceeded reliance on bank credit in only the UK and Denmark. Reliance on both equity and debt issuance exceeded reliance on bank credit in external company finance in only UK, Denmark, Finland, France, and Germany (European Commission, 2015a). Obstacles and barriers in the European Union landscape In the EU there are actually 28 different codes of tax, company and insolvency law that transnational investors have to deal with, blocking the smooth flow of capital between member states. Taking the example of bankruptcy law, different traditions and level of protections for investors are in place in member states. As Jey Westbrook, emeritus director of the International Insolvency Institute highlighted, The Brits have always had a more sympathetic idea to saving a debtor in trouble, Westbrook said. The Germans have had a much stricter view: There remains a big bias in favour of the idea that the management of this company screwed up, theyre losers, they probably did something fraudulent, the company should be bankrupt and pay the creditors as best they can, and the management should go join a monastery, so to speak. And then you have French law, which is somewhere in between but has much more emphasis on protecting employees and protecting jobs.[6]. The creation of truly European-wide securities moreover runs into the quest for harmonisation. Creating a security for home-mortgages, for example, requires that repossession laws in member states is to a certain degree homogeneous, same as the length of time spent in court to enforce a contract. Data from the World Bank doing Business indicators[7] show that litigation in court in countries like Italy and Greece can take up to three times the time spent in court in the Netherlands or Sweden. Banks normally bundle securities together into homogeneous groups (in our case Dutch mortgages packed together and Greek ones in a different securities). Moving to a single market for capital would require further harmonisation in national law in order to overcome national bias. Juncker CMU action plan After the publication of a Green paper in February 2015 and a public consultation to gather expert opinions, on 30 September 2015, the Commission adopted an action plan setting out a list of key measures to achieve a true single market for capital in Europe. It is supposed to be fully in place by 2019. As the plan reads there is no single measure that will deliver a Capital Market Union, meaning that a set of initiatives will be undertook in the short to medium run to facilitate the flow of capital, with the aim of reducing barriers between national borders. The process will take years, so it has not to be seen as a cyclical patch for relaunching growth in a stagnating post-crisis EU, but as a structural reform on the way credit is allocated throughout the continent. As outlined in the Green Paper the Commission supports market driven solutions when they are likely to be effective, and regulatory changes only where necessary (European Commission 2015a). Other than the action plan on CMU the commission also presented two directives on securitization: the first building blocks of CMU. The concrete outcome consists mainly of few technical proposals and amendments. First, changes to the prospectus Directive are proposed in order to facilitate SME financing, limiting the burden that these companies have to take in order to enter capital markets. Secondly, it recognizes the need to facilitate infrastructure financing and securitization through changes in the solvency II Directive and the capital requirement Regulation. SME financing is a focal point of the plan given the importance of those enterprises in creating jobs in Europe. The Commission plan aims at: Financing for innovation, start-ups and non-listed companies Making it easier for companies to enter and raise capital on public markets Investing for long-term, infrastructure and sustainable investment Fostering retail and institutional investment Leveraging banking capacity to support the wider economy Facilitating cross-border investing These broad goals are not fully operationalised and from the text there seems to be some inconsistencies. While the proposed approach is bottom-up, removing barriers when encountered, the Commission action aims at harmonising practices while possibly (as stated in the 5 Presidents Report) central supervision. What has been done until now In December 2016 the Council has agreed on the revision of EuVECA and EuSEF[8] making it easier for investors to diversify funding sources. Prospectus directive has been amended in December 2016 and now awaits implementation (capital rising up to 1 million euro will not need a prospectus; EU prospectus only required for risings over 8 million; new EU growth prospectus for facilitating cross-border money rising; ESMA will maintain a European online prospectus database; prospectus will be shorter and less costly to produce). Amendments to Solvency II legislation regarding infrastructure projects took effects in April 2016, concerning the calculation of regulatory capital requirements for several categories of assets held by insurance and reinsurance undertakings. No legislative steps yet. Proposal on simple, transparent and standardised (STS) securitisations and revision of the capital calibrations for banks. Structural Reform Support Programme within the Commission to spread best-practice and suggest reforms to member states. No other legislative procedures already enacted. Critical analysis While aiming at promoting investments in Europe, Giovannini et al. (2015) argue that it is not clear what are the causes of low investments in Europe, whether it depends on fragmented financial systems or if it is due to a low demand for capital. This means that the presumed effect of the CMU cannot be yet fully quantified. In order to strengthen cross-border transaction one of the most pressing issue is to improve the quality of information flow in order to establish market mechanism. This would require actions to increase the quality and harmonization of company data across Europe, including accounting standards, credit information and ownership. Considering the legislative outcomes so far, the CMU project has relied mainly on technical adjustments on existing legislation, creating new layers in order to arrive at a European-wide rulebook. The reformed prospectus directive, combined with the agreement of banks all over the continent to give feedbacks to firms in the case funds are not granted is a positive step forward. SMEs, having feedbacks on the best way to raise money will now be able to more easily access capital market due to the more limited fixed costs related to it. The STS securitization regulation includes a list of 55 criteria that a securitization should comply with in order to qualify for the STS label. These criteria aim at mitigating the risks arising from the process of securitization itself, allowing the investors to focus their assessment on the credit of the underlying assets. A major critical point however is that such a regulation without a proper enforcement mechanism is deemed to be at best suboptimal. National supervisors will be tasked to control the respect of these standards and sanction non-compliance, undermining the role of these assets in being really European, and creating possible conflicts due to different applications of standards between national regulators. Conclusion and final remarks The CMU action plan do not promise to eliminate the deep structural barriers that stands in the way of fully integrated capital markets. Moreover, much of the CMUs success depends on whether financing instruments represent free choices by SMEs or whether they are mainly dependent on the domestic market structure. In the latter case reform of the regulatory framework without harmonisation of national legislation will not guarantee enhanced financing opportunities for enterprises, jeopardizing the success of CMU itself. If the deep structural barriers that prevent cross-border integration of capital markets are not tackled, financial centres that are already at a competitive advantage will be in a good position to increase their market share. On a side note, the effect of Brexit has a huge weight in the future of CMU, being London the most important financial hub in the continent. Brexit offers however also the opportunity to revise the governance system of the CMU, proposing the stepping up of ESMA competencies in supervising European instruments. The UK was against further centralisation of competencies at the EU level, but now such a possibility should be taken into consideration, in order to strengthen the common supervision same as happened within the framework of the Banking union. Reference: Black, B. S. (2000) The Core Institutions that Support Strong Securities Markets. Business Lawyer, 55, 1565-1607. Commain, S., (2016) The securitisation regulation: missing the target?. CEPOB, 16/16 Demary, M., Hornik, J., Watfe, G. (2016) SME financing in the EU: moving beyond the one-size-fits-all. Bruges European Economic Policy Briefings, 40/2016. ECB (European Central Bank) (2012) Financial Integration Report (Frankfurt: ECB). European Commission (2015a) Green Paper: Building a Capital Markets Union, COM(2015) 63 à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ nal. European Commission (2015b) Action Plan on Building a Capital Market Union, COM(2015) 468 final. Giovannini, A., Mayer, C., Micossi, S., Di Noia, C., Onado, M., Pagano, M., Polo, A. (2015) Restarting European Long-Term Investment Finance, CEPR Press. Quaglia, L., Howarth, D., Liebe, M. (2016) The Political Economy of European Capital Markets Union. Journal of Common Market Studies, 54, 185-203. [1] A New Start for Europe: My Agenda for Jobs, Growth, Fairness and Democratic Change, http://ec.europa.eu/about/juncker-commission/docs/pg_en.pdf [2] Chaired by the British Johnathan Hill and lately by Dombrovsksis after the Brexit vote. [3] Council Directive 93/22/EEC of 10 May 1993 on investment services in the securities field. [4] Markets in Financial Instruments Directive 2004/39/EC [5] Historically in the USA from 1933 with the Glass-Steagall Act commercial and investment banking were separated until 1991, fostering a deepening of capital market financing in the country. [6] http://www.politico.eu/article/moving-money-a-capital-markets-union-primer/ [7] http://www.doingbusiness.org/data [8] Regulation (EU) No 345/2013 on European venture capital funds and Regulation (EU) No 346/2013 on European social entrepreneurship funds.

Culture and Public Relations: Links and Implications

Culture and Public Relations: Links and Implications Public relations can be described as an industry which builds bridges and maintain relationships with an organization and its intended public. At its very core, public relations it about connecting people, making it a very human oriented industry. Because it is so human oriented, it results in a PR person having to interact with many people, who may come from several different cultures. Culture, as explained by Thwaites, is the ensemble of social processes by which meanings are produced, circulated, exchanged (Thwaites, Davis, Mules, 1994). In short, it is simply the production of meanings by people. It is especially important for PR activity in terms of its role in the meaning-making process. Culture is multi-discursive and can be contested. It is also dynamic and historical. This means that culture is not stagnant and can evolve over time. This essay seeks to explore the relationship between culture and public relations in depth, especially the importance of intercultural competence in relation to a PR practitioner’s work. In order for a PR practitioner to properly carry out their work, cultural research is essential. To do so, they can adopt the use of anthropology and ethnography. According to the American Anthropological Association (n.d.), anthropology is the study of humans, whether past or present. Sociocultural anthropology explores the social patterns and practices across different cultures, especially how people live, organize, govern and create meaning. Traditionally, the anthropology approach treats culture as predictive, static and a casual variable (Bardhan Weaver, 2010). However, it is still useful to examine cultures in different contexts as they offer alternative ways of thinking about public relations. On the other hand, ethnography can help PR practitioners understand public relations and its effects in different ways. As one come across research from the 1990s and 2000s, they will realize that many of these researches drew on Hofstede’s extensive studies, mapping four dimensions of national culture. These four dimensions of national cultures are: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus feminity and individualist versus collective. Although extensive, Hofstede’s studies show only a static understand of culture, and is focused on understanding the culture of others in order to perform business functions more effectively. In spite of that, public relations should focus more on building and maintaining multicultural relationships and communities. In this increasingly globalized world, PR practitioners are crossing borders more, whether online or offline. Effectively, PR practitioners can be said as culture workers. Because of this, PR practitioners need to have more understanding of different cultures and the cultural differences. By developing an understanding for cultural differences, they may come to realize that one approach may not work across all cultures. As such, intercultural competence is very important for a PR practitioner. Developing intercultural competence will allow for a PR practitioner to come up with better approaches when working with different cultures. One example will be the difference between PR in America and China. Using Hofstede’s dimensions, one will find that the Chinese culture is very different from the American culture. The Chinese society in China firmly believes that a wide power distance is acceptable and that inequalities are acceptable; whereas the Americans are more open and there is a very narrow power distance between the higher and lower ranking members of an organization. PR in Singapore is also vastly different to practices in China. To the Chinese, because China is such a relationship-rooted society, networking and PR activities are expected to include gifting, as well as having to â€Å"wine and dine† a client before discussing official business. In Singapore, this is not widely-practiced, and doing so may seem like one is accepting favours or bribes. Such are examples of how difference in culture may affect a PR practitioner’s approach. Cultures may also be split into three areas, namely: occupational, organizational and education and research. In occupational cultures, research has to be done as cultural concepts are key to understanding public relations â€Å"as an occupational culture as well as a form of culture-worker† (Edwards Hodges, 2011). The various roles of public relations in culture highlights many different practices, which can be applied to many aspects of client handling. PR in occupational cultures can also be said to comprise of more than one culture such as â€Å"consultancy culture† and â€Å"in-house culture†. These cultural constraints, if understood, can help explain the relationship between PR and society. On top of that, it can also shine light on how cultural and societal conventions influence the industry in different contexts, and shape expectations and generate stereotypes or caricatures (Edwards Hodges, 2011). On the other hand, PR in organizational culture approaches research very differently and for different purposes. Anthropological concepts can be used to decipher the role of public relations in order to establish dichotomy of a manager-technician (Edwards Hodges, 2011). Because the nature of a PR practitioner’s work is necessarily cultural, research is instrumental to show that they are doing more outside of what is commonly perceived of them. In educational and research cultures, PR research can be useful to provide insights into â€Å"the existence and origin of resistances and negotiation over the curriculum† (Edwards Hodges, 2011). Ethnographical research can also be used to look into the cultures of professionals and those who are involved in the education industry. Because of the diversity of cultures, a PR practitioner has to develop a set of intercultural skills which are crucial to their work. Some examples of such skills will include knowledge of the different cultures, having an open mind as well as having empathy. Intercultural skills are important to a PR practitioner simply because of the number of different cultures that they will interact with in the span of their career. More often than not, a PR practitioner will find that a single approach will not work across all cultures, that â€Å"one shoe does not fit all†. As such, honing their intercultural skills is a must in order for them to come up with cultural-appropriate approaches. Intercultural competence involves both intrapersonal and interpersonal skills. Intrapersonal competencies mostly involve cognitive skills, which is altering one’s perspective to see from another person’s perspective. It also involves self-reflection, problem solving, as well as culture-detection (Stier, 2006). In addition, it also deals with understanding why people feel certain ways as well as the implications of these feelings and how people cope with them, which may be triggered by unknown cultural settings (Stier, 2006). Interpersonal competencies, however, involves interactive skills. Skills such as being able to â€Å"detect and interpret non-verbal cues, subtle signals and emotional responses† (Steir, 2006), as well as how to respond to them fittingly. The most important aspect of intercultural competence that a PR person has to possess is arguably empathy. Empathy, according to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, is the act of understanding and being sensitive to the feelings, thoughts and experiences of another. Being a â€Å"culture worker†, a PR person’s work spans many cultures. One have to understand that imposing their own thoughts and culture on another will not go down well, and that the right approach is to instead take the time to first understand how the culture functions and produce meaning. Culture plays a very big part in a PR person’s work. It is closely related to the way a PR practitioner is able to carry out their work, and PR practitioners have to do adequate research in order to prep themselves for the different cultures they will come across. Common research methods include the anthropological and ethnographical methods. Other than research, intercultural competence is also very important to a PR person. Because we live in an increasingly globalized community, it is inevitable that we will interact with many different cultures. Understanding of these cultures and one’s own will help one to understand the differences in each other’s cultures, so as to come up with better approaches when working with them. In conclusion, PR work requires cultural competence as it negotiates cultures, crossing boundaries online and off. Practitioners have to be flexible and understand the cultural values which are the foundations of the industry, as well as understand their cultural heritage. PR work also requires global and local knowledge, so as to facilitate to different cultures. Most of all, PR people should focus on building positive multicultural relationships and communities, as well as maintaining them. References What is Anthropology? (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2015, from http://www.aaanet.org/about/whatisanthropology.cfm Bardhan, N., Weaver, C. (2010). Public relations in global cultural contexts (p. 298). London, Abingdon, Ox: Routledge. Definition of â€Å"Empathy†. (n.d.). Retrieved May 27, 2015, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/empathy Edwards, L., Hodges, C. (2011). Public relations, society culture: Theoretical and empirical explorations (1st ed.). New York, New York: Routledge. Stier, J. (2006). Internationalisation, intercultural communication and intercultural competence. Journal of Intercultural Communication, (11). Retrieved May 27, 2015, from http://www.immi.se/intercultural/nr11/stier.pdf Thwaites, T., Davis, L., Mules, W. (1994). Tools for cultural studies: An introduction (1st ed.). South Melbourne, Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia.

Geographically Based Multicultural Education :: social issues

Geographically Based Multicultural Education Many Whites in the United States have a strong sense of ethnic identity that is tied to their immigrant ancestors’ country of origin (Italian Americans, Irish Americans, Swedish Americans) or to their experience in this country (New England Yankees, Midwestern Hoosiers, Appalachians, and so on). There are many subgroups within the White experience, but ...[m]any United States Whites with a strong sense of ethnic identity do not have a strong sense of racial identity. Indeed, ...many Whites take their Whiteness for granted to the extent that they do not consciously think about it. Nevertheless, their identity as members of the White group in the United States has a profound impact on their lives. "White Racial Identity Development in the United States" by Rita Hardiman in Race, Ethnicity, and Self: Identity in Multicultural Perspective, edited by Elizabeth Pathy Salett and Diane R. Koslow (Washington, DC: NMCI Publications, 1994). Among the challenges that face all Americans is to explore race and to educate their children about its impact in society. America is the "melting pot" of society and the most diverse nation in the world. Making it seem from the media that flashes pictures upon our retinas almost everyday. In reality, we live our lives in increasingly homogenized communities composed of single races. Many people never learn or are taught the difference that divide and bring us together. There needs to be a change in the way history is shown to children in America, including whom is a part of it and how it is taught. We need to create an environment that promotes a geographically based multicultural education. In school our children have been historically educated and taught history, epitomized by the glorification, or at least passing reference to Christopher Columbus’ atrocities in the Americas. There is no conspiracy to neglect others views and the hardships of history. Rather the European dominance that forms the basis for the general American culture manifests itself in skewed views of history. The dominate societal segment always writes the text, but the problem now is that, white America, no longer controls the culture as much as it did. As other populations of people grow, their side of history is added to the texts. This change in education started back in the thirties as "white" students examined their cultural heritage. As the non-Anglo Saxon population of whites came into power and position, they also wanted their heritages to be explained and glorified.

Hidden Class Struggle in John Updikes A&P :: A&P Essays

The Hidden Class Struggle in Updike’s A & P Two Works Cited In John Updike’s "A & P," Sammy is accused of quitting his job for childlike, immature reasons. Nathan Hatcher states, "In reality, Sammy quit his job not on a matter of ideals, but rather as a means of showing off and trying to impress the girls, specially Queenie" (37), but Sammy’s motive runs much deeper than that. He was searching for a sense of personal gain and satisfaction. By taking sides with the girls, he momentarily rises in class to meet their standards and the standards of the upper-class. Sammy was obviously near the bottom of the class ladder, a place where he was extremely unhappy. His dead-end job at the grocery store, where lower class citizens are the prime patrons, was not a place he felt he belonged. He wanted to be a member of the family where the "father and the other men were standing around in ice-cream coats and bow ties and the women were in sandals picking up herring snacks on toothpicks off a big glass plate and they were all holding drinks the color of water with olives and sprigs of mint in them" (Updike 1028). Sammy realizes that Queenie comes from this sort of background, a very different one from his. When Queenie is being harassed by Lengel, Sammy sees that "she remembers her place, a place from which the crowd that runs the A & P must look pretty crummy" (Updike 1028). Queenie’s family was in the class that he envied, that he admired, that he wanted to become a part of. So Sammy quits his job to prove to himself, maybe to others, that he belongs in this "place." Quitting his job is his first step in achieving this goal. Sammy was obviously enthralled by the girls from the moment they walked in the A & P. He was not keen on the other two girls, but Queenie overwhelmed him. He may have even taken a liking to Queenie, but any average, nineteen-year old male would do the same after witnessing such striking beauty as is described. On the other hand, the average male would not quit a job and create such turmoil if first impression was the only cause. How interested could he actually be? In trying to figure out Queenie’s persona, he asks, "do you really think it’s a mind in there or just a little buzz like a bee in a glass jar?

Where the Mind Is Without Fear

â€Å"Where the Mind is Without Fear† is a short lyric taken from â€Å"Gitanjali†. Here, the poet prays to God to awaken his country from darkness and slavery into a state of ideal freedom. In this inspiring poem, the poet prays God for the spiritual emancipation of his country and countrymen. True freedom lies in a full and virtuous living. Therefore the poet prays to God that his countrymen should be fearless, truthful, rational, God-fearing, noble and generous. Knowledge should be free and there should be no divisions of caste, creed and nationality.The poet prays to God to give perfection to those who are working hard to achieve perfection without taking rest. Rabindranath Tagore prays to God to help his countrymen to follow the path of logical thinking and not to indulge their mind in antique and outdated customs and traditions. According to Rabindranath Tagore, the outdated customs and traditions close the ways of progress. Hence his countrymen should leave behin d all the outdated customs and traditions and should fill their minds with logical thinking to lead themselves on the path of progress.Rabindranath Tagore prays God that his countrymen should follow the divine way of progress and must involve themselves in right action and thinking. His countrymen should possess the universal mind and should leave behind the narrow thinking. Their mind should be liberated from all the narrow thinking and should accept the broad outlook. It is to be noted that the â€Å"heaven of freedom† for which the poet prays is not a heaven of political and economic freedom but of spiritual freedom from fear, narrow-mindedness and evil desires. Where the mind is without fear’ is a beautiful lyric taken from the collection of poems ‘Gitanjali’ originally written in Bengali but translated into English by Rabindranath himself. In 1913 he received a Nobel prize for literature for ‘Gitanjali’, the only Indian who is honoured wi th a prestigious prize for literature. The lyric ‘Where the Mind is Without Fear’ is a devotional poem, in which Rabindranath Tagore prays God to liberate his countrymen from the age-old customs which mar the progress of his nation. He also prays to God to inculcate the habit of logical thinking and should relieve them from the mentality of slavery of customs.He seeks complete freedom, a political and spiritual freedom. Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high; Where knowledge is free; Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls; Where words come out from the depth of truth; Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection; Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit; Where the mind is led forward by thee into ever-widening thought and action — Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.

Lincoln: Democratic or Autocratic Essay

â€Å"Lincoln was one of the most democratic and also one of the most autocratic of presidents.† Abraham Lincoln was a very democratic president. He believed in the Union and would do anything to keep it together after the secession of the south that followed his election as president. However, to regain the entirety of the Union, he had to make some risky decisions that may have labeled him as autocratic. The fact that he was both democratic and autocratic is valid for the most part. However, the purpose of his tyrannical actions was to preserve the Union. Lincoln could be seen as democratic through his persistent drive to save the Union. After his election in 1860, the deep south seceded from the Union off of the belief that their rights were being violated. Then, following the events at Fort Sumter, the rest of the south seceded. Lincoln did everything in his power to try and regain peace in the country and save the Union from destruction. He stuck with the war for four long and bloody years while the Army of the Potomac was constantly struggling with defeat. If George McClellan had won the presidency, there would be negotiated peace. War would not have been sought out to bring back the southern states. Instead, there would be no guarantee that the south would even return to the Union. In addition, Lincoln did not believe in slavery. Even though he was still racist towards black, he saw the obvious immorality of the establishment. He fought for their freedom through his Emancipation Proclamation, which stated that all slaves in the C onfederacy were free from their masters. Lincoln fought for the preservation of the Union, a symbol of equality and democracy. He would protect it at any cost. With that, he also freed the slaves in the United States, which supported the idea of democracy he felt he needed to protect. Although Lincoln was a man of the people, he could also be considered as autocratic. But his tyrannical decisions and actions were not made for desire of power. He made them out of democratic intentions. Lincoln  suspended the Writs of Habeas Corpus in the area between Washington and Philadelphia, a bold move on his part. The Supreme Court even ruled this action unconstitutional, but Lincoln ignored it. Without putting much thought into it, this does seem unfair and unconstitutional. Put it was wartime, and not all the same rules apply. Lincoln made this decision for the benefit of the war effort. There were mob attacks on Union troops passing through Baltimore, so by suspending the writs, civilians supporting the Confederacy could be arrested and held without a trial. In addition, Lincoln expanded the size of the Union Army without congressional approvement. But of course, this was vital to the war, since this action allowed the North to outnumber the South. Also, the Emancipation Proclamation was considered unconstitutional by some. Lincoln pushed this act through that would free all the slaves in the Confederate territory without the vote from the states it would affect. But Lincoln’s reasoning behind this was that by making the war about slavery, it would prevent England and France from joining the fight, for if they did, it would be a lost cause for the North. In addition to this, Lincoln hoped that the free blacks would provide further trouble for the South. Not only would the freedom for all the South’s blacks completely shake their economy, they could also join the fight for their freedom. Lincoln did many things in extending his executive power that may have been seen as tyrannical and autocratic, but the reason he made these decisions was to protect and preserve the Union as a symbol and model of democracy. Abraham Lincoln was clearly democratic as he fought to maintain the Union as a whole. He was also the one responsible for the freedom of African Americans. And even though he did take some autocratic action during his presidency, it always had some benefit for the war effort, whether it was disrupting the Southern economy to make the anaconda plan work faster, or to detain Confederate sympathizers in the Union. Without Lincoln’s bold behavior, the war would never have been won. Without him, the Union would be broken.

CELTA Assignment: Southern Cross Teacher Training

Southern Cross Teacher Training Cambridge University CELTA Skills Assignment |Name |Submission date |Word count | | | | | |Signature to confirm the assignment is your own work | | | These are the criteria by which this assignment is assessed.Before submitting the assignment, double check to make sure you have specifically addressed each area of assessment sufficiently. |Criteria |Trainer Comments | |Correctly use terminology that relates to language | | |skills and sub-skills, e. g. make sure a task you | | |design and name as skim reading is indeed a skim | | |reading task. | | |Relate task design to language skills development, | | |e. . make sure you provide a rationale for each task| | |(e. g. why is the initial task a reading for gist? ). | | |Find, select, and reference information learnt about| | |skills development from one or more sources. | |Use written language that is clear, accurate and | | |appropriate to the task. | | | | | | | | | |Pass 1st submission | Resubm ission required | | | |Fail | | | | | | | | | | | | Skills Related TasksSection 1: Justification of text The text that I have chosen, a critical review of ‘Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 2’, has the potential to be hugely engaging and I could create a very interesting and enjoyable lesson based from it. The film itself is very dramatic and universal to all audiences, and the text depicts this clearly. This allows learners to read the language on offer and use the video trailer in the lead-in as contextual background.Using a film review format, a format that the learners will be familiar with, means that there will be greater focus on the reading skills of the learners, as they maybe put off by an unknown format, such as a legal document or medical journal. In addition the format of a film review is one that all learners would have seen before in a ‘real-world’ context and therefore understand the purpose and delivery of this text. As the film is recent and the whole series of films and books are a worldwide phenomenon, learners may appreciate the relevance and understanding of the basic plot and characters in the film.This maybe an advantage than teaching a previously unknown book or film as extra class time may be required to explain the synopsis and context to the learners. As a film review, the text is specifically designed to inform and entertain the general public about the film in question. This means learners will hopefully enjoy reading the text and will be interested to find out the opinion of a professional film critic, and perhaps compare that to their own opinions of the film.I will get the learners to use their own opinions of films by asking them to write a film review of their own. The learners can use the given text as a film review model so that they know what sort of lexis, register and structure to use for their productive task. This task will allow for free practice, however with a modeled example and a lso practice on forming critical opinions. Section 2 – A means of developing receptive skills and sub skills I will be trying to develop the learners’ reading skills.I will vary the activities so sometimes they maybe reading for certain facts, or reading in depth for a full and detailed understanding of the text. The first task I will give the learners will be a simple and straightforward ‘gist-task’ where learners have to confirm their predictions they made in the lead in task. Learners will be reading for specific information so may not read the full text in detail. This type of ‘gist-reading’ or reading for basic understanding will hopefully get the learners engaged in the text and get them understanding the context of the text.Reading for pre-defined material is another subskill that I could use this text to develop, as Harmer states in Practical English Language Teaching[1] how vital â€Å"extensive reading for the development of our stu dent’s word recognition† is. He thinks that â€Å"students need to be involved in both intensive and extensive reading† and hence the reason why the gist task I have chosen focuses on extensive reading and the detailed task does so on intensive reading.I would ask learners to read again and set some basic comprehension questions, perhaps in a true/false format or multiple-choice format. They will then have the opportunity to confirm this by pair comparison and open class feedback, accompanied by delayed error feedback. Using both types of reading techniques helps to improve both types of reading skills, which is something that learners will need for practically using English outside of the classroom. For a lead-in to this text I would initially show the class the trailer of the film.This will give a good engaging context to the lesson and all learners, irrespective of those who have seen the film, are on a the same level of pre-existing contextual knowledge. This means a greater focus on reading skills and language can occur, rather learners being confused about the plot and characters. I could perhaps use the trailer to elicit predictions form the learners about what happens in the film. I would then go on to elicit predictions about the success of the film and whether it was it would get a positive or negative review.Learners will then be thinking about their own opinions of the film and would find an authentic film review very useful to compare their own ideas. This would then lead straight into me handing out the text and asking learners to complete the gist task. This lead-in should aim to get learners thinking about Harry Potter and then subsequently on the topic of film reviews and critical opinions. As this document is a published in an international newspaper there are a few words that will need clarification for intermediate learners.I plan on highlighting five previously unseen words that are crucial for understanding of the text and not possible for their meaning to be deducted from the context. Only after the gist task will I go to elicit the meanings from these words, perhaps using antonyms, connotations or example sentences, as most of the complex lexis in the text are adjectives. Using these type of methods to clarify meaning I will hopefully be able to increase the knowledge of the learners while giving the learners a higher level of detail in their comprehension.For example I would have to clarify the meaning of ‘grim’. In order to do this I explain it was the antonym of happy/cheery, it is usually meant to describe desperate/bleak situations, and show an example sentence such as â€Å"it was a grim situation when the engine stopped†. If the learners were having further problems with the lexis other than the five specific words, I would write some synonyms on the board. This will allow learners to be able to understand the entirety of the text as well as expand their vocabulary.Th e varied comprehension activities that focus on developing different types of reading skills are attached. The first task (Question 1) is the initial gist question, where the learners have to guess the probable title and subtitle of the text. This means the learners will have to read the content of the text quickly to find out what the theme and approximate content of the text. In addition I asked the learners to write the title in the same style as the text is written, therefore meaning the learners have to scan read quickly for what sort of the language the author is using.This is backed up by the familiarity of the type of text and the content, which gives learners a deeper contextual background. Even if the learners are unsuccessful in guessing the title and its form the pair work comparisons and controlled open class feedback will allow learners to be exposed to other learners ideas and language. Then I would move onto the detailed comprehension task. Once the learners have rea d the text once for the gist task they will have to go back and read it after reading the detailed questions (Question 2).The detailed comprehension questions results in learners having to read the text in depth. However the information in the questions are predefined information that directs the learner to the specific part of the text to read in detail. The learners should be able to complete this task individually but if there are any learners struggling I can pair them up with a stronger partner for the learner-to-learner feedback. After that is complete I will get the learners to mark their own answers by using the key.This is often one of the best way for learners to see their own errors and more importantly why the made the error that they did. After this I would bring the class together again in open class feedback and go through any of the harder questions and explain why the learners made the errors they did. Section 3 – Developing productive skills and sub-skills I am aiming to develop the writing skills, in particular the draft writing skills of the learners. The text I have chosen is a model of a film review, so I am going to ask the learners to write their own film review about a film they have seen recently.Therefore the learners know what type of language, register and lexis is needed to write a film review. The learners will need a good level of writing skills because, as Jim Scrivener in Learning Teaching[2] backs up, â€Å"many learners have a specific need to work on writing skills† and â€Å"writing involves a different kind of mental process, there is more time to think, to reflect, to prepare, to rehearse, to make mistakes and find alternative and better solutions†. After finishing the reading task I would get the learners to write down five different opinions they had about their chosen film.This preparation time would allow learners to formulate ideas and more importantly how to convey them, while also allowing the m to collect their ideas together without being under pressure. From the step I would then set a time pressured situation where the learners have to come up with a draft version of their review. The benefit of this they will not focus on grammar and language but on the actual content. In addition the time pressure means the actual draft writing skills of the learners will improve, as under no time pressure the learners could write an accurate film review but not increase their skills.The next stage would be to give the learners an opportunity to self correct their work. In this step they would focus on grammar and language mistakes. If they can recognize their own errors without prompting then this is an improvement in their writing skills, as they would have to know the correct language to identify a mistake. This also makes them aware of the errors they are making themselves so in future they can get it right first time.Depending on the practicality of the classroom layout, I woul d either put the film reviews on the wall and have the learners read each other’s in a gallery type format or have another learner read their review. This means other learners have the opportunity to correct other learner’s work and the errors that were not spotted in the first self-correction will be made obvious to the learners. I would finally finish the class with some open class feedback and delayed error correction. Again this adds to the learners writing skills development, as it is obvious where the learners can improve

Betty Neuman

The theorist I selected is Betty Neuman. The theory’s historical background is extensive and has evolved over the years. According to www. nursingtheories. org it states â€Å"Neumann developed her Systems Model Theory in 1972 with the book entitled The Neuman Systems Model: Application to Nursing Education and Practice which included the Nursing process format & care plans included. In 1989 the book The Neuman Systems Model, 2nd ed. Created environment added to expand concept of environment. Spiritual variable added to diagram as fifth variable. The year 1995 brought about another book entitled The Neuman Systems Model, 3rd ed.Chapters on culture, international use of the Model, applications to administration and construction of conceptual-theoretical-structures for research added. In 2002 The Neuman Systems Model, 4th ed. Co-edited by Drs. Betty Neuman and Jacqueline Fawcett. Guidelines for clinical practice, model-based research, education and administration, plus appropri ate tools highlight this edition. The year 2010 The Neuman Systems Model, 5th ed. Co-edited by Drs. Betty Neuman and Jacqueline Fawcett. Chapters include an expansion of the client system as an individual, family, group and community.Highlights include advances in thinking about the created environment, reconstitution, and critical thinking within the context of the NSM. Middle-range theory development and integrative theorizing conclude the edition† (2013). A Description of key points of the theory are described on the website www. nursingtheories. org â€Å"The Systems model viewed the client as an open system consisting of a basic structure or central core of energy resources which represent concentric circles. Each concentric circle or layer is made up of the five variable areas which are considered and occur simultaneously in each client concentric circles.These are: Physiological – refers of bodily structure and function. Psychological – refers to mental p rocesses, functioning and emotions. Sociocultural – refers to relationships; and social/cultural functions and activities. Spiritual – refers to the influence of spiritual beliefs. Developmental – refers to life’s developmental processes† (2013) There are two major concepts regarded in the model. The first is stress reaction and systematic feedback loops. As it states on the website www. currentnursing. org â€Å"Client reacts to stress with lines of defense and esistance.Continuous feedback loops fine-tune the lines of defense and resistance so as to achieve maximal level of stability. The client is in continuous and dynamic interaction with the environment. The exchanges between the environment and the client are reciprocal (each one is influenced by the other). The goal is to achieve optimal system stability and balance. Prevention is the main nursing intervention to achieve this balance. Primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention activities ar e used to attain, retain, and maintain system balance† (2013).